WAEC Government 2012 past questions and answers

Studying government teaches citizens how the state is run, how decisions are made and what their rights and duties are.

In a monarchy the throne passes by birth within a royal family, so power is inherited. Diarchy means rule by two people or bodies, not inheritance.

When leaders must answer to the people for their actions, democracy is strengthened. Gerrymandering and slander undermine it.

Authority is the recognised right and ability to give orders and have them obeyed.

A government is legitimate when the people accept its right to rule.

In a democracy decisions follow the wishes of the majority, while minority rights are protected.

Winning an election gives leaders the mandate (power) to govern.

When the legislature passes law-making power to ministers, local councils or agencies, the laws they make are delegated legislation.

Delegated laws are made by officials who were not elected to make laws, so they are criticised as undemocratic.

A child first learns political values and attitudes from the family, so political socialization starts in childhood.

A. V. Dicey, a British jurist, explained the rule of law in his 1885 book on the constitution. Separation of powers is linked with Montesquieu.

When the legislature must approve executive decisions, one arm of government is checking the other.

The cabinet (parliamentary) system is democratic, with courts, elections and an opposition. Feudal, fascist and communist systems concentrate power and limit rights.

A constitution is the body of fundamental laws and rules by which a state is governed. It need not be written in one document.

A constitution sets out the powers of the organs of government and the limits on those who govern, so leaders know what they may and may not do.

A party manifesto is the party's own programme for an election; it is not part of the country's constitution.

A federal constitution shares power between the centre and the states, so it is made hard to amend (rigid) to protect that sharing.

The cabinet must answer to parliament and can be removed by a vote of no confidence.

In a federation both the central and state governments get their powers from the constitution, the supreme law; states are not subordinate to the central parliament in their own sphere.

In a confederation the member states keep their sovereignty and may leave the union; in a federation states normally cannot secede.

Senegal and The Gambia formed the Senegambia Confederation from 1982 to 1989.

The legislature approves the budget and examines public accounts, so it controls government spending.

Carpet-crossing is when a legislator leaves the party on whose platform he was elected and joins another party.

The judiciary interprets the law and settles disputes (adjudicates). Making laws belongs to the legislature and arresting to the police.

Free speech does not allow a person to publish false statements that damage another's reputation (libel).

Giving alms is a personal or religious act, not a civic duty required by the state.

With no opposition party to challenge it, the ruling party can easily become dictatorial.

Democracy gives people a choice, so it usually operates with several parties competing for power. 'Mass party' is a type of party, not a party system.

A coalition government is formed when parties combine because none has a clear majority on its own.

Giving every qualified adult the vote is a basic feature of democratic government.

If some adults are denied the vote because of sex, wealth or education, citizens are no longer politically equal.

Under first-past-the-post the candidate with the most votes wins, even without an absolute majority: a simple majority.

Proportional representation shares seats according to votes, which suits a country with many parties.

A free press informs people and lets them discuss issues, which shapes public opinion.

Civil servants advise ministers on policy and carry the policies out.

An independent commission recruits on merit, so politicians cannot use jobs to reward supporters.

Each public corporation is run by a board of directors appointed by government.

Local government serves as a training ground where local people learn how to govern.

Assimilation made educated Africans see themselves as French citizens, so demands for independence came late.

The NCBWA was formed in Accra, Gold Coast (now Ghana), in 1920, led by J. E. Casely Hayford.

WASU was founded in London in 1925 by the Nigerian law student Ladipo (Oladipo) Solanke.

Military regimes suspend the legislature and make laws by decree.

After a coup the soldiers usually suspend (parts of) the constitution and rule by decree.

Every country's foreign policy is shaped mainly by its national interest: security, economy and prestige.

The OAU was founded in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, on 25 May 1963. It was replaced by the African Union (AU) in 2002, which still has its headquarters there.

The OAU set up the Commission of Mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration to settle disputes among members. (The OAU became the African Union in 2002; the AU uses its Peace and Security Council.)

The British monarch is Head of the Commonwealth: Queen Elizabeth II in 2012, and King Charles III since 2022.

The Trusteeship Council supervised trust territories until they became independent; with the last one (Palau) independent in 1994, it suspended its work.

Any six, e.g.:
1. Periodic, free and fair elections.
2. Universal adult suffrage.
3. Majority rule with protection of minority rights.
4. Respect for the rule of law.
5. Protection of fundamental human rights.
6. Independent judiciary.
7. More than one political party / an opposition.
8. Free press and freedom of expression.
9. Independent electoral commission.
10. Government accountable to the people.

Give six separate features, one line each; avoid repeating the same idea in different words.

(a) The judiciary (courts and judges) is free to decide cases without interference, pressure or control from the executive, the legislature, parties or any person.
(b) Any three:
1. To protect citizens' rights and liberties.
2. To uphold the rule of law.
3. To ensure judges are impartial.
4. To keep public confidence in the courts.
5. To check abuse of power by the other arms of government.
6. To interpret the constitution fairly as an umpire, especially in federal disputes.

Define first, then give reasons (why it matters), not ways of achieving it.

Functions (any three):
1. Making laws.
2. Amending the constitution.
3. Approving the budget and controlling public funds.
4. Checking the executive (questions, investigations, impeachment).
5. Ratifying treaties / confirming appointments.
6. Representing and debating issues for the people.
Limitations (any three):
1. The constitution limits what it can do.
2. Judicial review: courts can declare its laws void.
3. Executive veto (presidential) or dissolution (parliamentary).
4. Public opinion, pressure groups and the press.
5. Party discipline / the ruling party.
6. Military rule suspends it; international law and treaties bind it.

Keep the two lists separate: three functions, then three limitations.

Any six:
1. They protect and promote members' interests.
2. They give citizens a channel to influence government.
3. They supply government with expert information.
4. They help in political education of members and public.
5. They check abuse of power and act as watchdogs.
6. They help shape public opinion.
7. They help government implement policies (e.g. mobilising support).
8. They train future leaders.
9. They promote participation and interest articulation.

Merits are advantages to democracy and society, not the types of pressure groups.

(a) The body of permanent, paid officials employed in government ministries and departments (excluding the armed forces, police and political officers) who advise ministers and carry out government policy.
(b) Structure (classes, from top):
1. Administrative class: permanent secretaries and directors; advise on and formulate policy.
2. Executive class: implement policies and supervise day-to-day work.
3. Professional/technical class: specialists such as doctors, engineers, lawyers.
4. Clerical class: keep records, files and accounts.
5. Manual/sub-clerical class: messengers, drivers, cleaners.
The service is hierarchical: each ministry is headed by a permanent secretary under a minister, with a Head of Service at the top.

For (b) name each class and say briefly what it does.

Any six:
1. Acephalous (no central ruler); segmentary, decentralised authority.
2. Small political units: villages / village groups.
3. Village assembly (Oha-na-eze) of adult males as the main decision body; direct democracy.
4. Council of elders headed by holders of the Ofo staff.
5. Age grades carried out public works, defence and law enforcement.
6. Title societies (Ozo, Nze) gave prestige and influence.
7. Religion: priests, oracles (e.g. Arochukwu) and deities settled disputes.
8. Umunna (lineage/kinship) as the basic unit.
9. Decisions by consensus; republican and egalitarian; leadership by merit.

Igbo society is the classic example of a stateless (acephalous) system; build points around that.

Any four:
1. Use of traditional rulers (chiefs/emirs) to govern the people.
2. Native Authorities set up, with Native Courts and Native Treasuries.
3. British officers (Residents/District Officers) supervised and advised the chiefs.
4. Local customs, laws and religion were largely kept.
5. Chiefs collected taxes for the colonial government.
6. Warrant chiefs were appointed where there were no recognised chiefs (e.g. Eastern Nigeria).
7. Final authority rested with the British colonial government.

Indirect rule = British rule through existing traditional institutions, introduced by Lord Lugard.

(a) Nationalism is the feeling of oneness and loyalty among a people, and their organised effort to free themselves from foreign (colonial) rule and govern themselves.
(b) Any five:
1. The Second World War: African soldiers saw that Europeans were not invincible.
2. The Atlantic Charter (1941): the right of peoples to self-determination.
3. The United Nations' support for decolonisation.
4. Pan-African Congresses and leaders like Marcus Garvey and W. E. B. Du Bois.
5. The West African Students' Union (WASU) in London.
6. India's independence (1947) and other independences (e.g. Ghana's in 1957 for others).
7. The British Labour Party's support for self-rule.
8. Pressure from the USA and USSR against colonialism.
9. Africans educated abroad bringing back liberal ideas.

Part (b) asks for external factors only: events and influences from outside West Africa.

Any six:
1. Introduced a quasi-federal system with three regions (North, West, East).
2. Central legislature: House of Representatives of 148 (mostly elected) members.
3. Central Council of Ministers (executive) headed by the Governor, with 12 Nigerian ministers.
4. Regional Houses of Assembly and Regional Executive Councils in each region.
5. Bicameral legislature (House of Chiefs and House of Assembly) in the North and West; unicameral in the East.
6. Electoral college (indirect) system of election.
7. Northern Region given half the seats in the House of Representatives.
8. Governor retained veto power; ministers had no portfolios.
9. Wide consultation (from village level) before it was made.

Note the figures (three regions, 148 members) to show precise knowledge.

(a) Points:
1. Formed in 1964 before the 1964 federal election.
2. An alliance of the Northern People's Congress (NPC), the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) led by S. L. Akintola, and smaller parties (e.g. Mid-West Democratic Front, Niger Delta Congress, Dynamic Party).
3. It followed the 1962 Action Group crisis, which split the AG and produced Akintola's NNDP.
4. Formed to win the federal election against the rival United Progressive Grand Alliance (UPGA: NCNC, AG and allies).
(b) Any three:
1. It won the 1964 federal election and formed the federal government.
2. Sir Ahmadu Bello's NPC kept control of the centre with Tafawa Balewa as Prime Minister.
3. It helped Akintola's NNDP win the 1965 Western Regional election.
4. It gave the North and West a political link across regions.

Name the parties in each alliance and link the NNA to the 1962 AG crisis and the 1964 election.

Any six:
1. National interest.
2. Size and population.
3. Economic resources (oil wealth).
4. Colonial history / ties with Britain.
5. Geographical location and neighbours (West Africa).
6. Military strength.
7. Ideology and type of government (civilian or military).
8. Personality of the leaders.
9. Public opinion and pressure groups.
10. Membership of international organisations (UN, AU/OAU, ECOWAS, Commonwealth).
11. Ethnic and religious composition.

Factors are things that shape foreign policy; do not list the objectives of the policy instead.

Any six:
1. Language and colonial differences (Anglophone, Francophone, Lusophone).
2. Members' loyalty to other bodies (e.g. francophone ties to France, UEMOA).
3. Political instability and military coups.
4. Different currencies and currency convertibility problems.
5. Poor transport and communication links.
6. Failure of members to pay dues; poor funding.
7. Similar products (primary goods), so little trade among members.
8. Border closures, smuggling and limits on free movement.
9. Dominance and suspicion of Nigeria.
10. Conflicts, insurgency and civil wars in member states.
Note: since this paper, Mauritania left in 2000 and Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger left in January 2025 to form the Alliance of Sahel States, so ECOWAS now has 12 members.

At the time of this paper ECOWAS had 15 members; it now has 12 after the 2025 withdrawals of Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger.