WAEC Government 1988 past questions and answers

Civil disobedience is a refusal to obey government, not one of the meanings of government (an institution, a process of ruling, the exercise of authority, or the activities of rulers).

As an act or process, government means all the activities by which policies are made and carried out.

An unwritten constitution (like Britain's) is partly written in many statutes and documents but is not collected in one single document.

Devolution is the transfer of powers from the central government to local units, which act on their own but remain under the centre's supervision and control.

No government can provide all the material needs of every citizen; the other options are normal functions of government.

A flexible constitution is amended like an ordinary law, by a simple majority in the legislature.

Britain's constitution is not contained in one document; it is found in statutes, conventions, common law and works of authority.

A federation needs a rigid constitution so that the division of powers between the centre and the units cannot be changed easily by one side.

Federal (nationwide) elections up to 1988 were held in 1954, 1959 (pre-independence), 1964 (First Republic), 1979 and 1983 (Second Republic).

Sovereignty has an external side (independence from other states) and an internal side (supreme authority within the state's territory).

During the 1973 Arab–Israeli war, Nigeria, like most OAU members, broke ties with Israel over its occupation of Egyptian (African) territory in Sinai. Relations were restored in 1992.

The UN headquarters is in New York, USA.

Governments come and go, but the state continues; government is only the agent of the state.

Only the state can lawfully use force up to the death penalty; other associations cannot.

Communism abolishes private ownership of the means of production, so private enterprise has no place in it.

Under the 1979 Constitution a Nigerian (other than by birth-right dual nationality) who acquired another country's citizenship lost Nigerian citizenship. The 1999 Constitution now allows Nigerians by birth to hold dual citizenship.

In systems theory, demands and supports are inputs; the decisions and policies of government are outputs.

Red-tapism (slow, rule-bound procedure) is commonly linked with bureaucracy, the rule-based civil service.

Rule making is for the legislature, rule application for the executive and rule adjudication (interpreting laws and settling disputes) for the judiciary.

The 1979 presidential result was disputed over whether Shagari's 25% in 12⅔ states met the 'two-thirds of the states' rule (Awolowo v. Shagari).

Peaceful co-existence, non-interference, respect for territorial integrity and international co-operation are principles of Nigeria's foreign policy; economic dependence is not one of them.

The Labour Party, which won the 1945 British election, favoured self-government for the colonies, and this speeded up the move to Nigeria's independence.

Nuclear war would destroy rather than resolve a conflict, so it is not an accepted means; diplomacy, propaganda, sanctions and even conventional war are recognised instruments.

Under military rule in 1988 the National Council of States was made up of the Head of State and the state governors (with some other top officers). Under the 1999 Constitution it also includes former presidents, the Chief Justice and others.

The Commonwealth is a voluntary association of independent states that were mostly once British colonies, from every continent, not only Africa. (Today a few members, e.g. Mozambique and Rwanda, were never British colonies.)

The 1962 emergency in the Western Region was declared under the powers in the 1960 Independence Constitution.

The first purpose of any state is to keep law and order so that life and property are secure.

Babangida's regime (1985–1993) renamed the Supreme Military Council the Armed Forces Ruling Council.

The General Assembly is a principal organ of the UN, not a specialised agency.

The office of Prime Minister of the Federation was created in 1957, when Abubakar Tafawa Balewa became the first Prime Minister.

The party leader is elected by the party convention or members, not by the secretariat, which is the administrative office.

Earlier military rulers were called Head of State; Babangida was the first to take the title 'President' (1985).

Indirect rule used traditional rulers because of few British staff and little money; the educated elite were in fact left out and opposed it.

Legitimacy is the people's acceptance that a government has the right to rule.

Voting, campaigning and other voluntary activities in choosing leaders are forms of political participation.

Under the 1960 constitution, matters not on the exclusive or concurrent lists (residual matters) belonged to the regions. (Today residual matters belong to the states.)

The 1963 Republican Constitution ended appeals to the Privy Council, making the Supreme Court the final court.

General Murtala Mohammed increased the states from 12 to 19 in February 1976. Nigeria now has 36 states.

The single transferable vote is a common form of proportional representation; the alternative vote and second ballot are majority systems.

Political culture is a society's attitudes, beliefs, feelings and values about politics.

A flexible constitution can be changed quickly, so it can be adapted to emergencies.

ECOWAS (1975) was set up mainly to promote economic integration among West African states.

The OAU charter (1963) did not aim to install democratic governments; it respected non-interference. The OAU was replaced by the African Union in 2002.

No government can provide all the needs of its citizens.

All the others describe concentrated, oppressive rule; welfarism is about the state caring for citizens' welfare.

What makes a political party different from a pressure group is that its main aim is to win power and control the government.

Assimilation aimed to turn Africans into French citizens in culture, language and law.

Under Gowon, the military governors sat on the Supreme Military Council; Murtala removed them in 1975.

The French used forced labour (corvée) and the indigénat system in their colonies.

The dispute was about what 'at least one quarter of the votes in two-thirds of the 19 states' meant (12⅔ states).

Lateef Jakande became prominent later as Governor of Lagos State (1979–83); the others led the independence struggle.

Poor economies made new African states depend on aid and trade from one of the power blocs, so they could not stay truly neutral.

Herbert Macaulay formed the Nigerian National Democratic Party in 1923 after the Clifford Constitution introduced elections.

Nigeria sent peacekeeping troops to Chad in 1979 and in 1981–82 (OAU force).

Listing the central government's powers in the constitution limits it and protects the powers of the units.

The communist ideal is 'from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs'.

Socialism places the means of production under state (public) ownership for the benefit of all.

The OAU summit of September 1967 in Kinshasa first discussed the Nigerian civil war and set up a consultative mission.

Nigeria argued that the war was an internal matter, and the OAU charter forbade interference in members' internal affairs.

Definition: a state is a politically organised body of people living in a definite territory, with a government and sovereignty (free from outside control).
Population: a group of people living together permanently.
Territory: a defined area with boundaries (land, territorial waters and airspace).
Government: the machinery that makes, carries out and interprets laws for the state.
Sovereignty: supreme power inside the territory and independence from outside control.
Also accept: recognition by other states; permanence/continuity.

Give a clear definition, then explain each characteristic in a sentence or two.

Definition: a republic is a form of government in which the head of state is elected (directly or indirectly) for a fixed term, not a hereditary monarch.
Elected head of state with a fixed tenure.
Sovereignty belongs to the people; leaders get power through elections.
Supremacy of the constitution.
Rule of law and equality before the law.
Head of state can be removed (impeached) for misconduct.
Fundamental human rights protected.
Any qualified citizen can aspire to the highest office.
Example: Nigeria became a republic in 1963.

Contrast with monarchy, where the head of state inherits the throne.

(a) Civil service: the permanent body of officials in government ministries and departments who advise ministers and carry out policies.
Public service is wider: it includes the civil service plus public corporations, the armed forces, police, judiciary staff, local government staff and the teaching service.
Civil servants are paid directly from government votes; many public servants work in bodies that earn revenue (e.g. corporations).
Civil service is governed by General Orders/civil service rules; parts of the public service by their own enabling laws and boards.
(b) Red-tapism and delay.
Corruption and bribery.
Over-staffing and inefficiency.
Political interference in appointments and promotion (loss of neutrality).
Nepotism and ethnic favouritism (quota system over merit).
Lack of initiative and resistance to change.
Poor attitude to work and absenteeism.
Wastage of public funds.

Part (a) needs real differences, not just definitions.

Definition: an electoral system in which parties win seats in proportion to the votes they get (e.g. list system, single transferable vote), usually in multi-member constituencies.
Merits: fair representation of parties according to votes; minorities and small parties are represented; fewer wasted votes; reduces domination by one party; encourages wider participation.
Demerits: complicated for voters and officials to understand and count; often produces coalition and unstable governments; encourages many small parties; weak link between a member and a constituency; strengthens party bosses (list system); costly.

Explain at least three merits and three demerits.

Law making: makes, amends and repeals laws.
Financial control: approves the budget, taxes and spending (power of the purse).
Control of the executive: questions ministers, investigates, passes votes of no confidence or impeaches.
Approval of appointments (e.g. ministers, ambassadors, judges) in a presidential system.
Ratifies treaties and approves declaration of war.
Amends the constitution together with other bodies.
Representation: voices the views of constituents.
Debates national issues and educates the public.
Judicial role: impeachment proceedings; in Britain the House of Lords was formerly the final court.

Each function should be explained, not just listed.

Definition: a foreign policy of not joining either of the power blocs of the Cold War (the Western capitalist bloc led by the USA and the Eastern communist bloc led by the USSR), and judging each issue on its merits.
Advantages: preserves the country's independence and sovereignty; allows aid and trade from both blocs; keeps the country out of super-power wars and conflicts; gives developing countries a common voice (Non-Aligned Movement); promotes world peace; freedom to judge issues on their merits; protects the country from neo-colonial domination.

Mention the Cold War background; the Non-Aligned Movement was formed in 1961.

Leadership struggle between Chief Obafemi Awolowo (party leader, in Lagos as opposition leader) and Chief S. L. Akintola (Premier of the Western Region).
Ideological differences: Awolowo's democratic socialism and radical opposition against Akintola's wish to cooperate with the NPC-led federal government.
Disagreement over joining a national government with the NPC.
Akintola's removal as Premier by the party and the Governor, and the fight in the Western House of Assembly (May 1962).
Interference of the federal government (NPC/NCNC coalition), which declared a state of emergency in the West.
Personal ambition and indiscipline among party leaders.
The Coker Commission probe and the treason trial of Awolowo and others weakened the party further.

Organise the answer around the causes, not a story of events.

Reasons for introduction: shortage of British staff; shortage of funds; vast territory and poor communication; existing well-organised emirate system in the North (Lugard's experience); language barrier; to preserve local customs and avoid resistance; success elsewhere (e.g. India, Uganda).
Reasons for failure in some parts (especially the East and partly the West): no centralised traditional authority in Igbo land, so the British created warrant chiefs who lacked legitimacy; resistance by the people, e.g. Aba Women's Riot of 1929 over taxation; the educated elite opposed it; in the West, the Obas' powers were limited by councils of chiefs, so making them autocratic caused conflict; introduction of direct taxation was resented.

Two parts: why it was introduced, and why it failed in the South-East (and partly the West).

Hausa/Fulani: centralised system; justice based on Islamic (Sharia) law; Alkalis (Islamic judges) appointed by the Emir tried cases; the Emir was the final court of appeal and could impose severe punishments including death; trained, literate judges.
Igbo: decentralised (acephalous) system; no single ruler; disputes settled by family heads, the council of elders (Ama-ala), age grades, the Ofo holders and title societies (Ozo); justice based on customary law and oracles/deities (e.g. Ibini Ukpabi); decisions by consensus at village assembly; punishments included fines, ostracism and banishment.
Similarities: both aimed to keep order and settle disputes; both had appeal to higher authority (Emir / oracle or larger assembly).

Present the comparison point by point.

Aims (OAU Charter, 1963): promote unity and solidarity among African states; coordinate cooperation to achieve a better life for Africans; defend their sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence; eradicate all forms of colonialism from Africa; promote international cooperation in line with the UN Charter.
Achievements: helped liberate remaining colonies (Liberation Committee supported Angola, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Namibia); fought apartheid in South Africa; settled some border disputes (e.g. Algeria–Morocco); gave Africa a common voice in the UN; helped refugees; encouraged economic cooperation (Lagos Plan of Action 1980); peacekeeping in Chad (1981).
Note: the OAU was replaced by the African Union (AU) in 2002.

State aims briefly; spend more marks on achievements with examples.